COVID-19 vaccine wastage was considerably below assumptions in 2021. We heard from NHS England and the Taskforce that this was due to system-wide efforts throughout the vaccination supply, distribution and deployment chain to ensure as much vaccine as possible was used.65 Vaccine was treated by all who came into contact with it like a precious commodity. Up to the end of October 2021, the NAO estimated COVID-19 vaccine wastage levels for England had been under 5%, well below the programme’s initial assumption of 15–20% and, according to NHS England, low by historical standards.66